Reflections on gender disparity in STEM higher education programs: Perspectives and strategies
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.18192/jpds-sjpd.v1i0.2178Résumé
STEM has been broadly perceived as a vital driver of sustainable development worldwide. However, women remain underrepresented in STEM fields despite decades of effort to bridge the gender gap. The purpose of this article is to understand of the underlying factors that contribute to gender disparity in STEM and suggest effective interventions. Specifically, I seek to address the following questions: what factors contribute to gender disparity in graduate STEM program? What strategies can be adopted to address the issue?
This paper examines fifty articles published from 2006-2016 that had women or gender and/or science as a central part of their studies to identify institutional and socio-cultural perspectives used to explain the situation and identify strategies that have been used to overcome the problem. Findings suggest that the factors that contribute to women underrepresentation in STEM are complex and numerous, calling for multi-faceted strategies to move the field forward.
Références
Abbiss, J. (2008). Rethinking the ‘problem’ of gender and IT schooling: discourses in literature. Gender and Education, 20(2), 153-165.
Acheampong, A. B. (2014). Inequality of gender participation of females in STEM disciplines in higher education: A case study of KNUST: Ghana. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10852/43101, February 2, 2017.
Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J. Willis, B., & Wong, B. (2013). Not girly, not sexy, not glamorous: Primary girls’ and parents’ constructions of science aspiration. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 21(1), 171-194.
Atuahene, F., & Owusu-Ansah, A. (2013). A descriptive assessment of higher education access, participation, equity, and disparity in Ghana (pp. 1-16). Sage Open. doi: 10.1177/2158244013497725.
Baily, S., & Holmarsdottir, H. B. (2015). The quality of equity? Reframing gender, development and education in the post-2020 landscape. Gender and Education, 27(7), 828-845.
Boateng, F. K. (2015). Dealing with the ball and chain: A grounded theory study of the experiences of women in STEM domains in Ghana (Ph.D.). University of Florida, United States -- Florida. Retrieved from: http://search.proquest.com.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/pqdtglobal/docview/1786686317/A9CC2C72A7084503PQ/1, February 1, 2017.
Case, S. S., & Richley, B. A. (2013). Gendered institutional research cultures in science: The post-doc transition for women scientists. Community, Work & Family, 16(3), 327-349.
Chauraya, E. (2014). Access or inclusion? Conceptualisation and operalisation of gender equality in Zimbabwean state universities. Perspectives in Education, 32(4), 4-19.
Cheryan, S., C. Plaut, V. C., Paul G. Davies, P. G., & Steele, C.M., (2009). Ambient belonging: How stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1045-1060.
Chikunda, C. (2010). Assessing the level of gender awareness of science teachers: The case of Zimbabwe’s two education districts. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(3), 110-120.
Chikunda, C. (2014). Identifying tensions around gender-responsive curriculum practices in science teacher education in Zimbabwe: An activity theory analysis. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(3), 264-275.
Dasgupta, N., & Stout, J. G. (2014). Girls and women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics STEMing the tide and broadening participation in STEM careers. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 21-29.
DeJaeghere, J., & Wiger, N. P. (2013). Gender discourses in an NGO education project: Openings for transformation toward gender equality in Bangladesh. International Journal of Educational Development, 33, 557-565.
Deschênes, C. (2008). Dimension internationale du leadership. Dans L., Lafortune, C., Deschênes, M. C., Williamson, et P., Provencier, (Collectif arbitré, sous la dir.). Le leadership des femmes en STIM: Sciences, technologies, ingénierie et mathématiques, (pp. 143-159). Québec : PUQ, Collection Éducation/Intervention.
Eccles, J. S. (2015). Gendered socialization of STEM interests in the family. International Journal of Gender Science and Technology, 7(2), 116-132.
Else-Quest, M. N., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(1), 103-127.
Evans, E. (2015). What makes a (third) wave? International Feminist Journal of Politics, 1-20.
Gilbert, A. F. (2009). Disciplinary cultures in mechanical engineering and materials science: Gendered/gendering practices. Equal Opportunities International, 28(1), 24-35.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations. McGraw-Hill.
Holth, L., & Mellström, U. (2011). Revisiting engineering, masculinity and technology studies: Old structures with new openings. International Journal of Gender Science and Technology, 3(2), 313-329.
Hlalele, D., & Alexander, G. (2012). University access, inclusion and social justice. South African Journal of Higher Education, 26(3), 487-502.
Karlsson, J. (2010). Gender mainstreaming in a South African provincial education department: A transformative shift or technical fix for oppressive gender relations? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 40(4), 497-514.
LaCosse, J., Denise Sekaquaptewa, D., & Jill Bennett, J. (2016). STEM stereotypic attribution bias among women in an unwelcoming science setting. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1-20.
Leaper, C. (2015). Do I Belong? Gender, peer groups, and STEM achievement. International Journal of Gender, Science and Technology, 7(2), 166-179.
Rosenthal, L., Levy, S. R., & London, B. & Lobel, M. & Bazile, C. (2013). In pursuit of the MD: The impact of role models, identity compatibility, and belonging among undergraduate women. Sex Roles, 68, 464-473.
Loots, S., & Walker, M. (2016). A capabilities-based gender equality policy for higher education: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 7(2), 260-277.
Lynch, I., & Nowosenetz, T. (2009). An exploratory study of students' constructions of gender in science, engineering and technology. Gender and Education, 21(5), 567-581.
Machira, M. A. (2013). The experience of patriarchy by Kenyan women in the pursuit of higher education. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway; Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/eric/docview/1697502107/E44C17039D53413BPQ/11.
Makama, G. A. (2013). Patriarchy and gender inequality in Nigeria: The way forward. European Scientific Journal, 9(17), 115-144.
Mansfield, K.C., Welton, A.D., & Grogan, M. (2010) “Truth or consequences”: A feminist critical policy analysis of the STEM crisis. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 27(9), 1155-1182.
Menon, N. (2015). Fighting patriarchy and capitalism. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 3(1), 3-11.
Monroe, K., R. & Chiu, I.W. (2010). Gender equality in the academy: The pipeline problem. The Profession, 303-308.
Morley, L. (2010). Gender mainstreaming: Myths and measurement in higher education in Ghana and Tanzania. Compare, 40(4), 533-550.
Mkude, D. (2011). Higher education as an instrument of social integration in Tanzania: Challenges and prospects. Research in Comparative and International Education, 6(4), 366-373.
Mujawamariya, D. (2013). Enseigner les sciences en milieu francophone minoritaire : perceptions d’enseignantes et d’enseignants francophones de l’Ontario. Dans S. Houde et J-C. Kalubi (dirs.). Intégrer des matières ou développer des apprentissages? Approches plurielles en milieu scolaire, (pp. 51-62). Québec : Les presses interuniversitaires.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Capabilities. The human development approach. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Ogbogu, C. O. (2011). Gender inequalities in academia: Evidences from Nigeria. Contemporary Issues of Education Research, 4(9), 1-8.
Parson, L. (2016). Are STEM syllabi gendered? A feminist critical discourse analysis. The Qualitative Report, 21(1), 102-116.
Rogers, J., & Kelly, U. A. (2011). Feminist intersectionality: Bringing social justice to health disparities research. Nursing Ethics, 18(3), 397-407.
Rosenthal, L., London, B., Levy, S. R., Lobel, M. & Bazile, C. (2011). The roles of perceived identity compatibility and social support for women in a single-sex STEM program at a co-educational university. Sex Roles, 65(9-10), 725-736.
Samson, G. (2014). Les filles dans le contexte de la technologie et de l'ingénierie : Pistes d'intervention et recommandations, Dans A. Roy, D. Mujawamariya et L., Lafortune, Des actions pédagogiques pour guider les filles et les femmes en STIM: Sciences, technos, ingénierie et maths, (pp. 55-67). Québec : PUQ.
Schulze, S., & van Heerden, M. (2015). Learning environments matter: Identifying on the motivation to learn science. South African Journal of Education, 35(2), 1-9.
Shin, J. et al. (2015). Home and motivational factors related to science-career pursuit: Gender differences and gender similarities. International Journal of Science Education, 37(9), 1478-1503.
Sinnes, A.T., & Loken, M. (2014). Gendered education in a gendered world: Looking beyond cosmetic solutions to the gender gap in science. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 9(2), 343-364.
Singh, M. (2011). Equity and quality in the revitalisation of African higher education: Trends and challenges. Research in Comparative and International Education, 6(4), 348-365.
Stoilescu, D., & Egodawatte, G. (2010). Gender differences in the use of computers, programming, and peer interactions in computer science classrooms. Computer Science Education, 20(4), 283-300.
Stoilescu, D., & McDougall, D. (2011), Gender digital divide and challenges in undergraduate computer science programs. Canadian Journal of Education 34(1), 308-333.
Stout, J. G., Dasgupta, N., Hunsinger, M., & McManus, M. A. (2011). STEMing the tide: Using in-group experts to inoculate women’s self-concept in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 255-270.
Ulriksen, L., Madsen, L.M., & Holmegaard, H.T. (2010). What do we know about explanations for drop out/opt out among young people from STM higher education programmes? Studies in Science Education, 46(2), 209-244.
Unterhalter, E. 2007. Gender, schooling and global social justice. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Unterhalter, E., & North, A. (2010). Assessing gender mainstreaming in the education sector: depoliticised technique or a step towards women’s rights and gender equality? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 40(4), 389-404.
Walker, M. (2015). Imagining STEM higher education futures: Advancing human well-being. High Education, 70, 417-425.
Acheampong, A. B. (2014). Inequality of gender participation of females in STEM disciplines in higher education: A case study of KNUST: Ghana. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10852/43101, February 2, 2017.
Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J. Willis, B., & Wong, B. (2013). Not girly, not sexy, not glamorous: Primary girls’ and parents’ constructions of science aspiration. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 21(1), 171-194.
Atuahene, F., & Owusu-Ansah, A. (2013). A descriptive assessment of higher education access, participation, equity, and disparity in Ghana (pp. 1-16). Sage Open. doi: 10.1177/2158244013497725.
Baily, S., & Holmarsdottir, H. B. (2015). The quality of equity? Reframing gender, development and education in the post-2020 landscape. Gender and Education, 27(7), 828-845.
Boateng, F. K. (2015). Dealing with the ball and chain: A grounded theory study of the experiences of women in STEM domains in Ghana (Ph.D.). University of Florida, United States -- Florida. Retrieved from: http://search.proquest.com.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/pqdtglobal/docview/1786686317/A9CC2C72A7084503PQ/1, February 1, 2017.
Case, S. S., & Richley, B. A. (2013). Gendered institutional research cultures in science: The post-doc transition for women scientists. Community, Work & Family, 16(3), 327-349.
Chauraya, E. (2014). Access or inclusion? Conceptualisation and operalisation of gender equality in Zimbabwean state universities. Perspectives in Education, 32(4), 4-19.
Cheryan, S., C. Plaut, V. C., Paul G. Davies, P. G., & Steele, C.M., (2009). Ambient belonging: How stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1045-1060.
Chikunda, C. (2010). Assessing the level of gender awareness of science teachers: The case of Zimbabwe’s two education districts. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(3), 110-120.
Chikunda, C. (2014). Identifying tensions around gender-responsive curriculum practices in science teacher education in Zimbabwe: An activity theory analysis. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(3), 264-275.
Dasgupta, N., & Stout, J. G. (2014). Girls and women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics STEMing the tide and broadening participation in STEM careers. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 21-29.
DeJaeghere, J., & Wiger, N. P. (2013). Gender discourses in an NGO education project: Openings for transformation toward gender equality in Bangladesh. International Journal of Educational Development, 33, 557-565.
Deschênes, C. (2008). Dimension internationale du leadership. Dans L., Lafortune, C., Deschênes, M. C., Williamson, et P., Provencier, (Collectif arbitré, sous la dir.). Le leadership des femmes en STIM: Sciences, technologies, ingénierie et mathématiques, (pp. 143-159). Québec : PUQ, Collection Éducation/Intervention.
Eccles, J. S. (2015). Gendered socialization of STEM interests in the family. International Journal of Gender Science and Technology, 7(2), 116-132.
Else-Quest, M. N., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(1), 103-127.
Evans, E. (2015). What makes a (third) wave? International Feminist Journal of Politics, 1-20.
Gilbert, A. F. (2009). Disciplinary cultures in mechanical engineering and materials science: Gendered/gendering practices. Equal Opportunities International, 28(1), 24-35.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations. McGraw-Hill.
Holth, L., & Mellström, U. (2011). Revisiting engineering, masculinity and technology studies: Old structures with new openings. International Journal of Gender Science and Technology, 3(2), 313-329.
Hlalele, D., & Alexander, G. (2012). University access, inclusion and social justice. South African Journal of Higher Education, 26(3), 487-502.
Karlsson, J. (2010). Gender mainstreaming in a South African provincial education department: A transformative shift or technical fix for oppressive gender relations? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 40(4), 497-514.
LaCosse, J., Denise Sekaquaptewa, D., & Jill Bennett, J. (2016). STEM stereotypic attribution bias among women in an unwelcoming science setting. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1-20.
Leaper, C. (2015). Do I Belong? Gender, peer groups, and STEM achievement. International Journal of Gender, Science and Technology, 7(2), 166-179.
Rosenthal, L., Levy, S. R., & London, B. & Lobel, M. & Bazile, C. (2013). In pursuit of the MD: The impact of role models, identity compatibility, and belonging among undergraduate women. Sex Roles, 68, 464-473.
Loots, S., & Walker, M. (2016). A capabilities-based gender equality policy for higher education: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 7(2), 260-277.
Lynch, I., & Nowosenetz, T. (2009). An exploratory study of students' constructions of gender in science, engineering and technology. Gender and Education, 21(5), 567-581.
Machira, M. A. (2013). The experience of patriarchy by Kenyan women in the pursuit of higher education. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway; Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/eric/docview/1697502107/E44C17039D53413BPQ/11.
Makama, G. A. (2013). Patriarchy and gender inequality in Nigeria: The way forward. European Scientific Journal, 9(17), 115-144.
Mansfield, K.C., Welton, A.D., & Grogan, M. (2010) “Truth or consequences”: A feminist critical policy analysis of the STEM crisis. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 27(9), 1155-1182.
Menon, N. (2015). Fighting patriarchy and capitalism. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 3(1), 3-11.
Monroe, K., R. & Chiu, I.W. (2010). Gender equality in the academy: The pipeline problem. The Profession, 303-308.
Morley, L. (2010). Gender mainstreaming: Myths and measurement in higher education in Ghana and Tanzania. Compare, 40(4), 533-550.
Mkude, D. (2011). Higher education as an instrument of social integration in Tanzania: Challenges and prospects. Research in Comparative and International Education, 6(4), 366-373.
Mujawamariya, D. (2013). Enseigner les sciences en milieu francophone minoritaire : perceptions d’enseignantes et d’enseignants francophones de l’Ontario. Dans S. Houde et J-C. Kalubi (dirs.). Intégrer des matières ou développer des apprentissages? Approches plurielles en milieu scolaire, (pp. 51-62). Québec : Les presses interuniversitaires.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Capabilities. The human development approach. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Ogbogu, C. O. (2011). Gender inequalities in academia: Evidences from Nigeria. Contemporary Issues of Education Research, 4(9), 1-8.
Parson, L. (2016). Are STEM syllabi gendered? A feminist critical discourse analysis. The Qualitative Report, 21(1), 102-116.
Rogers, J., & Kelly, U. A. (2011). Feminist intersectionality: Bringing social justice to health disparities research. Nursing Ethics, 18(3), 397-407.
Rosenthal, L., London, B., Levy, S. R., Lobel, M. & Bazile, C. (2011). The roles of perceived identity compatibility and social support for women in a single-sex STEM program at a co-educational university. Sex Roles, 65(9-10), 725-736.
Samson, G. (2014). Les filles dans le contexte de la technologie et de l'ingénierie : Pistes d'intervention et recommandations, Dans A. Roy, D. Mujawamariya et L., Lafortune, Des actions pédagogiques pour guider les filles et les femmes en STIM: Sciences, technos, ingénierie et maths, (pp. 55-67). Québec : PUQ.
Schulze, S., & van Heerden, M. (2015). Learning environments matter: Identifying on the motivation to learn science. South African Journal of Education, 35(2), 1-9.
Shin, J. et al. (2015). Home and motivational factors related to science-career pursuit: Gender differences and gender similarities. International Journal of Science Education, 37(9), 1478-1503.
Sinnes, A.T., & Loken, M. (2014). Gendered education in a gendered world: Looking beyond cosmetic solutions to the gender gap in science. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 9(2), 343-364.
Singh, M. (2011). Equity and quality in the revitalisation of African higher education: Trends and challenges. Research in Comparative and International Education, 6(4), 348-365.
Stoilescu, D., & Egodawatte, G. (2010). Gender differences in the use of computers, programming, and peer interactions in computer science classrooms. Computer Science Education, 20(4), 283-300.
Stoilescu, D., & McDougall, D. (2011), Gender digital divide and challenges in undergraduate computer science programs. Canadian Journal of Education 34(1), 308-333.
Stout, J. G., Dasgupta, N., Hunsinger, M., & McManus, M. A. (2011). STEMing the tide: Using in-group experts to inoculate women’s self-concept in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 255-270.
Ulriksen, L., Madsen, L.M., & Holmegaard, H.T. (2010). What do we know about explanations for drop out/opt out among young people from STM higher education programmes? Studies in Science Education, 46(2), 209-244.
Unterhalter, E. 2007. Gender, schooling and global social justice. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Unterhalter, E., & North, A. (2010). Assessing gender mainstreaming in the education sector: depoliticised technique or a step towards women’s rights and gender equality? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 40(4), 389-404.
Walker, M. (2015). Imagining STEM higher education futures: Advancing human well-being. High Education, 70, 417-425.
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