Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.18192/riss-ijhs.v2i1.1525Mots-clés :
Troubles du spectre autistique, théorie du cerveau mâle extrême, théorie d’empathisationsystématisation, théorie de la testostérone fœtaleRésumé
Les troubles du spectre autistique (TSA) sont une catégorie de troubles de la neurologie du développement présentant des symptômes de dégradation sociale et des communications, ainsi que des comportements restrictifs et répétitifs. Ils sont davantage présents chez les hommes que chez les femmes, et cette différence entre les sexes a beaucoup influencé les hypothèses au sujet de leur étiologie. La théorie du cerveau mâle extrême (CME) est un modèle cognitif proposé par Simon Baron-Cohen pour expliquer les différences entre les sexes et les causes potentielles des TSA susmentionnés. Elle repose sur sa théorie d’empathisation-systématisation, qui consiste à classer les sujets dans cinq profils co- gnitifs (Type S, Type E, Type B, Type S extrême et Type E extrême). Ces profils cognitifs déterminent la capacité du sujet de systématiser et d’être en empathie avec. La systématisation est la capacité de comprendre un système et d’en déduire les règles. Elle exige des capacités de déduction et d’analyse. L’empathie a trait à la compréhension des émotions et des comportements humains, ce qui exige des capacités sociales et de communication. Les hommes ont tendance à mieux systématiser, tandis que les femmes présentent le profil opposé. Selon la théorie du CME, les autistes auraient un profil de Type S extrême, car on peut expliquer leurs troubles de communication sociale par leur déficit d’empathie, alors qu’on peut relier à leur fort niveau de systématisation leur préoccupation au sujet des patrons et leur comportement axé sur les détails. Ensemble, ces modèles cognitifs ont conduit à la théorie de la testostérone fœtale (Tf), qui stipule qu’un niveau élevé de testostérone prénatale est un facteur de risque pour le profil cognitif hypermasculinisé des sujets atteints de TSA. Dans cet article, les auteurs évaluent la validité des théories du CME et de la Tf, en étudiant la documentation portant sur la Tf avec des caractéristiques autistes dans l’ensemble de la population. Ces sept études ont confirmé une corrélation entre des niveaux élevés de Tf et une augmentation des caractéristiques autistes, mais il faut envisager d’y mettre des limites au moment de généraliser ces informations à un échantillon de sujets atteints de TSA.
Références
Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., & Hackett, G. (2009). Fetal testosterone and autistic traits. British Journal of Psychology, 100(Pt1), 1- 22. doi: 10.1348/000712608X311731
Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., & Hines, M. (2009). Fetal testosterone predicts sexually differentiated childhood behaviour in girls and in boys. Psychological Science, 20(2), 144-148. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02279.x
Auyeung, B., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2010). Foetal testosterone and autistic traits in 18 to 24-month-old children. Molecular Autism, 1(1), 11-19. doi: 10.1186/2040-2392-1-11
Barbeau, E. B., Mendrek, A., & Mottron, L. (2009). Are autistic traits autistic? British Journal of Psychology, 100, 23-28. doi: 10.1348/000712608X337788
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248-254.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). Autism: the empathizing-systemizing (E-S) theory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 68-80. doi: 10.1111/j.1749- 6632.2009.04467.x
Baron-Cohen, S., Auyeung, B., Ashwin, E., & Knickmeyer, R. (2009). Fetal testosterone and autistic traits: A response to three fascinating commentaries. British Journal of Psychology, 100(1), 39-47. doi: 10.1348/000712608X394271
Baron-Cohen, S., Knickmeyer, R. C., Belmonte, M. K. (2005). Sex differences in the brain: implications for explaining autism. Science, 310(5749), 819-823. doi: 10.1126/ science.1115455
Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., & Wheelwright, S. (2003). The systemizing quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 361-374. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1206
Casto, J. M., Ward, O. B., & Bartke, A. (2003). Play, copulation, anatomy and testosterone in gonadally intact male rates prenatally exposed to flutamide. Physiology & Behaviour, 79(4-5), 633-641. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9384(03) 00120-3
Chakrabarti, B., Dudbridge, F., Kent, L., Wheelwright, S., Hill-Cawthorne, G., Allison, C., Banjerjee-Basu, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). Genes related to sex steroids, neural growth, and social-emotional behaviour are associated with autistic traits, empathy and Asperger syndrome. Autism Research, 2(3), 157-177. doi: 10.1002/ aur.80
Chapman, E., Baron-Cohen, S., Auyeung, B., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., & Hackett, G. (2006). Fetal testosterone and empathy: Evidence from the empathy quotient (EQ) and the ‘Reading the mind in the eyes’ test. Social Neuroscience, 1(2), 135-148. doi: 10.1080/17470910600992239
Chura, L. R., Lombardo, M. V., Ashwin, E., Auyeung, B., Chakrabarti, B., Bullmore, E. T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2010). Organizational effects of fetal testosterone on human corpus callosum size and asymmetry. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(1), 122-132. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.09.009
Collins, D. W., & Kimura, D. (1997). A large sex difference on a two-dimensional mental rotation task. Behavioural Neuroscience, 111(4), 845-849. Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.111.4.845
Faras, H., Al Ateeqi, N., & Tidmarsh, L. (2010). Autism spectrum disorders. Annals of Saudi Medicine, 30(4), 295- 300. doi: 10.4103/0256-4947.65261
Finegan, J. A., Bartleman, B., & Wong, P. Y. (1989). A window for the study of prenatal sex hormone influences on postnatal development. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 150(1), 101-112. doi: 10.1080/00221325.1989.9914580
Geschwind, N., & Behan, P. (1982). Left-handedness: association with immune disease, migraine, and developmental learning disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 79(16), 5097- 5100.
Geschwind, N. & Galaburda, A. M. (1985). Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology. Archives of Neurology, 42(5), 428-459. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1985.04060050026008
Gitau, R., Adams, D., Fisk, N. M., & Glover, V. (2005) Fetal plasma testosterone correlates positively with cortisol. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 90, F166-F169. doi: 10.1136/adc.2004.049320
Goldenfeld, N., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2005). Empathizing and systemizing in males, females and autism. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 2(6), 338-345. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511543753.019
Goy, R. W., Bercovitch, F. B., & McBrair, M. C. (1988). Behavioural masculinisation is independent of genital masculinisation in prenatally androgenised female rhesus macaques. Hormones and Behaviour, 22(4), 552-571. doi: 10.1016/0018-506X(88)90058-X
Goy, R. W., & McEwen, B. S. (1980). Sexual differentiation of the brain, ed., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, reviewed in Walled, K. (2005) Hormonal influences on sexually differentiated behaviour in nonhuman primates. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 26, 7-26
Hill, E.L., & Frith, U. (2003). Understanding autism: insights from mind and brain. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 281-289. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1209
Hines, M. (2006). Prenatal testosterone and gender related behaviour. European Journal of Endocrinology, 155 (Suppl. 1), S115-121. doi: 10.1530/eje.1.02236
Hines, M., Fane, B. A., Pasterski, V. L., Matthews, G. A., Conway, G. S., & Brook C. (2003). Spatial abilities follow- ing prenatal androgen abnormality: targeting and mental rotations performance in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28(8), 1010 -1026.
Hughes, J. R. (2008). A review of recent reports on autism: 1000 studies published in 2007. Epilepsy & Behaviour, 13 (3), 425-437. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.06.015
Jones, A., Cork, C., Chowdhury, U. (2006). Autistic spectrum disorders. 1: Presentation and assessment. Community Practitioner: The Journal of the Community Practitioners’ & Health Visitors’ Association, 79 (3), 97-98.
Knickmeyer, R. C. & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Fetal testosterone and sex differences. Early Human Development, 82 (12), 755-760. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.09.014
Knickmeyer, R. C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Fetal testosterone and sex differences in typical social development and in autism. Journal of Child Neurology, 21(10), 825- 845. doi: 10.1177/08830738060210101601
Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Fane, B. A., Wheelwright, S., Mathews, G. A., Conway, G. C., & Hines, M. (2006a). Androgens and autistic traits: A study of individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behaviour, 50(1), 148-153. doi: 10.1016/ j.yhbeh.2006.02.006
Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, P., & Taylor, K. (2005). Foetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(2), 198-210. doi: 10.1111/j.1469- 7610.2004.00349.x
Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, R., Taylor, K., & Hackett, G. (2006b). Fetal testosterone and empathy. Hormones and Behaviour, 49(3), 282-292. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.08.010
Manning, J. T., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Sanders, G. (2001). The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43 (3), 160-164. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2001.tb00181.x
Manson, J. E. (2008). Prenatal exposure to sex steroid hormones and behavioural/cognitive outcomes. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 57(Suppl. 2), S16-21. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2008.07.010
Marco, E.J., & Skuse, D. H. (2006). Autism – lessons from the X chromosome. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 183-193. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsl028
Phoenix, C. H., Goy, R. W., Gerall, A. A., & Young, W. C. (1959). Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behaviour in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology, 65, 369- 382. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo-65-3-369
Pomerantz, S. M., Fox, T. O., Sholl, S. A., Vito, C. C., & Goy, R. W. (1985). Androgen and estrogen receptors in fetal rhesus monkey brain and anterior pituitary. Endocrinology, 116(1), 83-89. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo-116-1-83
Skuse, D. H. (2009). Is autism really a coherent syndrome in boys, or girls? British Journal of Psychology, 100(Pt1), 33-37. doi: 10.1348/000712608X369459
Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (2), 250-270. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.250
Wakabayashi, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Uchiyama, T., Yoshida, Y., Kuroda, M., & Wheelwright, S. (2007). Empathizing and systemizing in adults with and without autism spectrum conditions: cross-cultural stability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(10), 1823-1832. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0316-6
Wallen, K. (2005). Hormonal influences on sexually differentiated behaviour in nonhuman primates. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 26(1), 7-26. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2005.02.001
Wallen, K., Maestripieri, D., & Mann, D. R. (1995). Effects of neonatal testicular suppression with a GnRH antagonist on social behaviour in group-living juvenile rhesus monkeys. Hormones and Behaviour, 29(3), 322-337. doi: 10.1006/hbeh.1995.1023
Ward, I. L., Ward, O. B., Affuso, J. D., Long, W. D. 3rd, French, J. A., & Hendricks, S. E. (2003). Fetal testosterone surge: specific modulation induced in male rates by maternal stress and/or alcohol consumption. Hormones and Behaviour, 43, 531-539. doi: 10.1016/S0018-506X(03) 00061-8
Whitehouse, A. J., Mayberry, M. T., Hart, R., Mattes, E., Newnham, J. P., Sloboda, D. M., Stanley, F. J., & Hickey, M. (2010). Fetal androgen exposure and pragmatic language ability of girls in middle childhood: implications for the extreme male-brain theory of autism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(8), 1259-1264. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.02.007
Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., & Hines, M. (2009). Fetal testosterone predicts sexually differentiated childhood behaviour in girls and in boys. Psychological Science, 20(2), 144-148. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02279.x
Auyeung, B., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2010). Foetal testosterone and autistic traits in 18 to 24-month-old children. Molecular Autism, 1(1), 11-19. doi: 10.1186/2040-2392-1-11
Barbeau, E. B., Mendrek, A., & Mottron, L. (2009). Are autistic traits autistic? British Journal of Psychology, 100, 23-28. doi: 10.1348/000712608X337788
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248-254.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). Autism: the empathizing-systemizing (E-S) theory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 68-80. doi: 10.1111/j.1749- 6632.2009.04467.x
Baron-Cohen, S., Auyeung, B., Ashwin, E., & Knickmeyer, R. (2009). Fetal testosterone and autistic traits: A response to three fascinating commentaries. British Journal of Psychology, 100(1), 39-47. doi: 10.1348/000712608X394271
Baron-Cohen, S., Knickmeyer, R. C., Belmonte, M. K. (2005). Sex differences in the brain: implications for explaining autism. Science, 310(5749), 819-823. doi: 10.1126/ science.1115455
Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., & Wheelwright, S. (2003). The systemizing quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 361-374. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1206
Casto, J. M., Ward, O. B., & Bartke, A. (2003). Play, copulation, anatomy and testosterone in gonadally intact male rates prenatally exposed to flutamide. Physiology & Behaviour, 79(4-5), 633-641. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9384(03) 00120-3
Chakrabarti, B., Dudbridge, F., Kent, L., Wheelwright, S., Hill-Cawthorne, G., Allison, C., Banjerjee-Basu, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). Genes related to sex steroids, neural growth, and social-emotional behaviour are associated with autistic traits, empathy and Asperger syndrome. Autism Research, 2(3), 157-177. doi: 10.1002/ aur.80
Chapman, E., Baron-Cohen, S., Auyeung, B., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., & Hackett, G. (2006). Fetal testosterone and empathy: Evidence from the empathy quotient (EQ) and the ‘Reading the mind in the eyes’ test. Social Neuroscience, 1(2), 135-148. doi: 10.1080/17470910600992239
Chura, L. R., Lombardo, M. V., Ashwin, E., Auyeung, B., Chakrabarti, B., Bullmore, E. T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2010). Organizational effects of fetal testosterone on human corpus callosum size and asymmetry. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(1), 122-132. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.09.009
Collins, D. W., & Kimura, D. (1997). A large sex difference on a two-dimensional mental rotation task. Behavioural Neuroscience, 111(4), 845-849. Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.111.4.845
Faras, H., Al Ateeqi, N., & Tidmarsh, L. (2010). Autism spectrum disorders. Annals of Saudi Medicine, 30(4), 295- 300. doi: 10.4103/0256-4947.65261
Finegan, J. A., Bartleman, B., & Wong, P. Y. (1989). A window for the study of prenatal sex hormone influences on postnatal development. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 150(1), 101-112. doi: 10.1080/00221325.1989.9914580
Geschwind, N., & Behan, P. (1982). Left-handedness: association with immune disease, migraine, and developmental learning disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 79(16), 5097- 5100.
Geschwind, N. & Galaburda, A. M. (1985). Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology. Archives of Neurology, 42(5), 428-459. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1985.04060050026008
Gitau, R., Adams, D., Fisk, N. M., & Glover, V. (2005) Fetal plasma testosterone correlates positively with cortisol. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 90, F166-F169. doi: 10.1136/adc.2004.049320
Goldenfeld, N., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2005). Empathizing and systemizing in males, females and autism. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 2(6), 338-345. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511543753.019
Goy, R. W., Bercovitch, F. B., & McBrair, M. C. (1988). Behavioural masculinisation is independent of genital masculinisation in prenatally androgenised female rhesus macaques. Hormones and Behaviour, 22(4), 552-571. doi: 10.1016/0018-506X(88)90058-X
Goy, R. W., & McEwen, B. S. (1980). Sexual differentiation of the brain, ed., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, reviewed in Walled, K. (2005) Hormonal influences on sexually differentiated behaviour in nonhuman primates. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 26, 7-26
Hill, E.L., & Frith, U. (2003). Understanding autism: insights from mind and brain. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 281-289. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1209
Hines, M. (2006). Prenatal testosterone and gender related behaviour. European Journal of Endocrinology, 155 (Suppl. 1), S115-121. doi: 10.1530/eje.1.02236
Hines, M., Fane, B. A., Pasterski, V. L., Matthews, G. A., Conway, G. S., & Brook C. (2003). Spatial abilities follow- ing prenatal androgen abnormality: targeting and mental rotations performance in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28(8), 1010 -1026.
Hughes, J. R. (2008). A review of recent reports on autism: 1000 studies published in 2007. Epilepsy & Behaviour, 13 (3), 425-437. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.06.015
Jones, A., Cork, C., Chowdhury, U. (2006). Autistic spectrum disorders. 1: Presentation and assessment. Community Practitioner: The Journal of the Community Practitioners’ & Health Visitors’ Association, 79 (3), 97-98.
Knickmeyer, R. C. & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Fetal testosterone and sex differences. Early Human Development, 82 (12), 755-760. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.09.014
Knickmeyer, R. C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Fetal testosterone and sex differences in typical social development and in autism. Journal of Child Neurology, 21(10), 825- 845. doi: 10.1177/08830738060210101601
Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Fane, B. A., Wheelwright, S., Mathews, G. A., Conway, G. C., & Hines, M. (2006a). Androgens and autistic traits: A study of individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behaviour, 50(1), 148-153. doi: 10.1016/ j.yhbeh.2006.02.006
Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, P., & Taylor, K. (2005). Foetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(2), 198-210. doi: 10.1111/j.1469- 7610.2004.00349.x
Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, R., Taylor, K., & Hackett, G. (2006b). Fetal testosterone and empathy. Hormones and Behaviour, 49(3), 282-292. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.08.010
Manning, J. T., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Sanders, G. (2001). The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43 (3), 160-164. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2001.tb00181.x
Manson, J. E. (2008). Prenatal exposure to sex steroid hormones and behavioural/cognitive outcomes. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 57(Suppl. 2), S16-21. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2008.07.010
Marco, E.J., & Skuse, D. H. (2006). Autism – lessons from the X chromosome. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 183-193. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsl028
Phoenix, C. H., Goy, R. W., Gerall, A. A., & Young, W. C. (1959). Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behaviour in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology, 65, 369- 382. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo-65-3-369
Pomerantz, S. M., Fox, T. O., Sholl, S. A., Vito, C. C., & Goy, R. W. (1985). Androgen and estrogen receptors in fetal rhesus monkey brain and anterior pituitary. Endocrinology, 116(1), 83-89. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo-116-1-83
Skuse, D. H. (2009). Is autism really a coherent syndrome in boys, or girls? British Journal of Psychology, 100(Pt1), 33-37. doi: 10.1348/000712608X369459
Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (2), 250-270. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.250
Wakabayashi, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Uchiyama, T., Yoshida, Y., Kuroda, M., & Wheelwright, S. (2007). Empathizing and systemizing in adults with and without autism spectrum conditions: cross-cultural stability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(10), 1823-1832. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0316-6
Wallen, K. (2005). Hormonal influences on sexually differentiated behaviour in nonhuman primates. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 26(1), 7-26. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2005.02.001
Wallen, K., Maestripieri, D., & Mann, D. R. (1995). Effects of neonatal testicular suppression with a GnRH antagonist on social behaviour in group-living juvenile rhesus monkeys. Hormones and Behaviour, 29(3), 322-337. doi: 10.1006/hbeh.1995.1023
Ward, I. L., Ward, O. B., Affuso, J. D., Long, W. D. 3rd, French, J. A., & Hendricks, S. E. (2003). Fetal testosterone surge: specific modulation induced in male rates by maternal stress and/or alcohol consumption. Hormones and Behaviour, 43, 531-539. doi: 10.1016/S0018-506X(03) 00061-8
Whitehouse, A. J., Mayberry, M. T., Hart, R., Mattes, E., Newnham, J. P., Sloboda, D. M., Stanley, F. J., & Hickey, M. (2010). Fetal androgen exposure and pragmatic language ability of girls in middle childhood: implications for the extreme male-brain theory of autism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(8), 1259-1264. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.02.007
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