Study Protocol: Racial Discrimination, Cultural Processes and Wellbeing Among Asian University Students
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Published:
Mar 20, 2022
Keywords:
Asian discrimination, coping, acculturation
Main Article Content
Abstract
Introduction: Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, an increase in racial discrimination and xenophobia directed towards Asians has been documented in Western countries. The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic have also led to increases in mental health problems among people worldwide. Individuals from Asian backgrounds are at high risk for experiencing a dual-threat, due to risk for racial discrimination, in addition to general life and COVID-19-specific stressors. In Canada, the largest population of foreign- and Canadian-born immigrants are from Asian origins, while 74.9% of Canada’s international students in Canadian universities come from Asian countries. Considering the increase in incidents of racism and violence against Asian communities in Canada and the potential impacts of discriminatory events, our goal is to investigate associations between in-person and online racial discrimination and mental health among university students from Asian backgrounds, and the extent to which general coping strategies (e.g., problem-focused, emotion-focused, physical activity) contribute to better mental health outcomes among students. Because individuals from immigrant backgrounds, including Asian, are highly heterogeneous in terms of their immigration characteristics (e.g., immigrant status, length of residence), we will also examine the extent to which cultural processes (i.e., acculturation, cultural identity) affect associations between racial discrimination and mental health.
Methods and analyses: University students from Asian backgrounds will be asked to complete an online survey examining mental health, in-person and online racial discrimination, physical activity, coping strategies, and cultural processes (i.e., acculturation, cultural identity). Hierarchical multiple regressions will be conducted to examine associations between racial discrimination and mental health, and the moderating role of coping strategies and cultural processes.
Ethics and Dissemination: This project has received ethics approval from the University of Ottawa Research Ethics Board. Results of the study will be published in UOJM and can later be submitted for internal or external conference presentations or other journals, recognizing UOJM as the primary publisher.
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Section
Review & Clinical Practice
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References
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2. Miconi D, Li ZY, Frounfelker RL, Santavicca T, Cénat JM, Venkatesh V, et al. Ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study on the impact of exposure to the virus and COVID-19-related discrimination and stigma on mental health across ethno-cultural groups in Quebec (Canada). BJPsych open. 2021 Jan;7(1):e14.
3. Cost KT, Crosbie J, Anagnostou E, Birken CS, Charach A, Monga S, et al. Mostly worse, occasionally better: impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of Canadian children and adolescents. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry [Internet]. 2021 Feb 26 [cited 2021 May 19]; Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00787-021-01744-3
4. Ellis WE, Dumas TM, Forbes LM. Physically isolated but socially connected: Psychological adjustment and stress among adolescents during the initial COVID-19 crisis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement. 2020 Jul;52(3):177–87.
5. Findlay L, Arim R. Canadians Report Lower Self-Perceived Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic [Internet]. Statistics Canada; 2020. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/
6. Gadermann AC, Thomson KC, Richardson CG, Gagné M, McAuliffe C, Hirani S, et al. Examining the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on family mental health in Canada: findings from a national cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2021 Jan;11(1):e042871.
7. Burkova VN, Butovskaya ML, Randall AK, Fedenok JN, Ahmadi K, Alghraibeh AM, et al. Predictors of Anxiety in the COVID-19 Pandemic from a Global Perspective: Data from 23 Countries. Sustainability. 2021 Apr 4;13(7):4017.
8. Wilczewski M, Gorbaniuk O, Giuri P. The Psychological and Academic Effects of Studying From the Home and Host Country During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Front Psychol. 2021 Apr 9;12:644096.
9. Nwachukwu I, Nkire N, Shalaby R, Hrabok M, Vuong W, Gusnowski A, et al. COVID-19 Pandemic: Age-Related Differences in Measures of Stress, Anxiety and Depression in Canada. IJERPH. 2020 Sep 1;17(17):6366.
10. Dhanani LY, Franz B. Why public health framing matters: An experimental study of the effects of COVID-19 framing on prejudice and xenophobia in the United States. Social Science & Medicine. 2021 Jan;269:113572.
11. Gover AR, Harper SB, Langton L. Anti-Asian Hate Crime During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Reproduction of Inequality. Am J Crim Just. 2020 Aug;45(4):647–67.
12. Wu C, Qian Y, Wilkes R. Anti-Asian discrimination and the Asian-white mental health gap during COVID-19. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 2021 Apr 9;44(5):819–35.
13. Haft SL, Zhou Q. An outbreak of xenophobia: Perceived discrimination and anxiety in Chinese American college students before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Int J Psychol. 2021 Jan 10;ijop.12740.
14. Tessler H, Choi M, Kao G. The Anxiety of Being Asian American: Hate Crimes and Negative Biases During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Am J Crim Just. 2020 Aug;45(4):636–46.
15. Lee S, Waters SF. Asians and Asian Americans’ experiences of racial discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts on health outcomes and the buffering role of social support. Stigma and Health. 2021 Feb;6(1):70–8.
16. Schmitt MT, Branscombe NR, Postmes T, Garcia A. The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin. 2014;140(4):921–48.
17. Priest N, Paradies Y, Trenerry B, Truong M, Karlsen S, Kelly Y. A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science & Medicine. 2013 Oct;95:115–27.
18. Taylor S, Landry CA, Paluszek MM, Fergus TA, McKay D, Asmundson GJG. COVID stress syndrome: Concept, structure, and correlates. Depression and Anxiety. 2020 Aug;37(8):706–14.
19. Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA, Vu C. Understanding how discrimination can affect health. Health Serv Res. 2019 Dec;54(S2):1374–88.
20. Pascoe EA, Richman LS. Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin. 2009;135(4):531–54.
21. Miconi D, Li ZY, Frounfelker RL, Venkatesh V, Rousseau C. Socio-cultural correlates of self-reported experiences of discrimination related to COVID-19 in a culturally diverse sample of Canadian adults. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2021 Mar;81:176–92.
22. Addison C, Campbell-Jenkins B, Sarpong D, Kibler J, Singh M, Dubbert P, et al. Psychometric Evaluation of a Coping Strategies Inventory Short-Form (CSI-SF) in the Jackson Heart Study Cohort. IJERPH. 2007 Dec 31;4(4):289–95.
23. Krohne HW. Vigilance and cognitive avoidance as concepts in coping research. In Attention and Avoidance: Strategies in Coping and Aversivenes. Hogrefe & Huber. 1993;19–50.
24. Cairney J, Kwan MY, Veldhuizen S, Faulkner GE. Who Uses Exercise as a Coping Strategy for Stress? Results From a National Survey of Canadians. Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 2014 Jul;11(5):908–16.
25. Shigeto A, Laxman DJ, Landy JF, Scheier LM. Typologies of coping in young adults in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The Journal of General Psychology. 2021 Jul 3;148(3):272–304.
26. Schwarzer R, Luszczynska A. Reactive, anticipatory, preventive, and proactive coping: a theoretical distinction. The Prevention Researcher. 2008 Nov;15(4):22+.
27. Noh S, Beiser M, Kaspar V, Hou F, Rummens J. Perceived Racial Discrimination, Depression, and Coping: A Study of Southeast Asian Refugees in Canada. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1999 Sep;40(3):193.
28. Kuo BCH. Coping, acculturation, and psychological adaptation among migrants: a theoretical and empirical review and synthesis of the literature. Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine. 2014 Jan;2(1):16–33.
29. Noh S, Kaspar V. Perceived Discrimination and Depression: Moderating Effects of Coping, Acculturation, and Ethnic Support. Am J Public Health. 2003 Feb;93(2):232–8.
30. Beiser M, Noh S, Hou F, Kaspar V, Rummens J. Southeast Asian refugees’ perceptions of racial discrimination in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 2001;33:46–70.
31. Kawakami BK, Legaspi SG, Katz DA, Saturn SR. Exploring the Complexity of Coping Strategies Among People of Different Racial Identities. PsiChiJournal. 2020;25(4):327–38.
32. Chia A, Costigan CL. A person‐centred approach to identifying acculturation groups among Chinese Canadians. International Journal of Psychology. 2006 Oct;41(5):397–412.
33. Cheung BY, Chudek M, Heine SJ. Evidence for a Sensitive Period for Acculturation: Younger Immigrants Report Acculturating at a Faster Rate. Psychol Sci. 2011 Feb;22(2):147–52.
34. Hwang W-C, Ting JY. Disaggregating the effects of acculturation and acculturative stress on the mental health of Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2008;14(2):147–54.
35. Miller MJ, Yang M, Hui K, Choi N-Y, Lim RH. Acculturation, enculturation, and Asian American college students’ mental health and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2011;58(3):346–57.
36. Tieu Y, Konnert C. Measuring Acculturation and Enculturation among Chinese Canadian Older Adults. Can J Aging. 2015 Mar;34(1):36–46.
37. Suinn RM. Reviewing acculturation and Asian Americans: How acculturation affects health, adjustment, school achievement, and counseling. Asian American Journal of Psychology. 2010;1(1):5–17.
38. Sam DL, Berry JW, editors. The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press; 2006. 551 p.
39. Berry JW, Hou F. Acculturation, discrimination and wellbeing among second generation of immigrants in Canada. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2017 Nov;61:29–39.
40. Berry JW, Hou F. Immigrant acculturation and wellbeing in Canada. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne. 2016 Nov;57(4):254–64.
41. Brook JS, Pahl K. The Protective Role of Ethnic and Racial Identity and Aspects of an Africentric Orientation Against Drug Use Among African American Young Adults. The Journal of Genetic Psychology. 2005 Jul;166(3):329–45.
42. Dotterer AM, McHale SM, Crouter AC. Sociocultural Factors and School Engagement Among African American Youth: The Roles of Racial Discrimination, Racial Socialization, and Ethnic Identity. Applied Developmental Science. 2009 Apr 16;13(2):61–73.
43. Litam SDA, Oh S. Ethnic Identity and Coping Strategies as Moderators of COVID-19 Racial Discrimination Experiences Among Chinese Americans. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation. 2020;
44. Mroczkowski AL, Sánchez B. The Role of Racial Discrimination in the Economic Value of Education Among Urban, Low-Income Latina/o Youth: Ethnic Identity and Gender as Moderators. American Journal of Community Psychology. 2015 Sep;56(1–2):1–11.
45. Stein GL, Kiang L, Supple AJ, Gonzalez LM. Ethnic identity as a protective factor in the lives of Asian American adolescents. Asian American Journal of Psychology. 2014;5(3):206–13.
46. Woo B, Fan W, Tran TV, Takeuchi DT. The role of racial/ethnic identity in the association between racial discrimination and psychiatric disorders: A buffer or exacerbator? SSM - Population Health. 2019 Apr;7:100378.
47. Statistics Canada. National Longitudinal Survey of Children & Youth. 1999; Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/89f0078x/4198664-eng.pdf?st=KASwTxpg
48. Vaillancourt T, Brittain H, Krygsman A, Farrell AH, Landon S, Pepler D. School bullying before and during COVID‐19: Results from a population‐based randomized design. Aggressive Behavior. 2021 Sep;47(5):557–69.
49. Williams DR, Yan Yu, Jackson JS, Anderson NB. Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health: Socio-economic Status, Stress and Discrimination. J Health Psychol. 1997 Jul;2(3):335–51.
50. Keum BT. Development and validation of the Perceived Online Racism Scale short form (15 items) and very brief (six items). Computers in Human Behavior Reports. 2021 Jan;3:100082.
51. Beard C, Björgvinsson T. Beyond generalized anxiety disorder: Psychometric properties of the GAD-7 in a heterogeneous psychiatric sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2014 Aug;28(6):547–52.
52. Andresen EM, Malmgren JA, Carter WB, Patrick DL. Screening for Depression in Well Older Adults: Evaluation of a Short Form of the CES-D. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 1994 Mar;10(2):77–84.
53. Douglass S, Umaña-Taylor AJ. A brief form of the Ethnic Identity Scale: Development and empirical validation. Identity. 2015;15(1):48–65.
54. Ryder AG, Alden LE, Paulhus DL. Is acculturation unidimensional or bidimensional? A head-to-head comparison in the prediction of personality, self-identity, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;79(1):49–65.
55. Godin G, Shephard R. A Simple Method to Assess Exercise Behavior in the Community. Canadian journal of applied sport sciences Journal canadien des sciences appliquées au sport. 1985;10:141–6.
56. Prime H, Wade M, May S, Jenkins J, Browne D. The COVID-19 Family Stressor Scale: Validation and Measurement Invariance in Female and Male Caregivers [Internet]. PsyArXiv; 2021 Feb [cited 2021 Aug 4]. Available from: https://osf.io/7328w
57. Clark BK, Thorp AA, A.H. Winkler E, Gardiner PA, Healy GN, Owen N, et al. Validity of Self-Reported Measures of Workplace Sitting Time and Breaks in Sitting Time. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2011 Oct;43(10):1907–12.
58. Berg N. Non-Response Bias. Encyclopedia of Social Measurement. 2005;865–73.
59. Groves RM, Peytcheva E. The Impact of Nonresponse Rates on Nonresponse Bias: A Meta-Analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly. 2008 May 2;72(2):167–89.
60. Schouten B, Cobben F, Lundquist P, Wagner J. Does more balanced survey response imply less non-response bias? Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society). 2016;179(3):727–48.
61. Shamon H, Berning CC. Attention Check Items and Instructions in Online Surveys: Boon or Bane for Data Quality? Survey Research Methods. 2020 Apr 10;55-77 Pages.
62. Randall DM, Paul Huo Y, Pawelk P. SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS IN CROSS‐CULTURAL ETHICS RESEARCH. The Int J of Org Analysis. 1993 Feb;1(2):185–202.
63. Johnson TP, Van de Vijver FJ. Social desirability in cross-cultural research. Cross-cultural survey methods. 2003;(325):195–204.
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